History of Cinema Essay

From the very beginning its existence the cinema has created works of art worthy to stand comparison with the masterpieces of painting, music, literature, and theatre. Even more than that, the cinema is irremovably embedded in the whole history of the twentieth century. It has not only shaped but also reflected the reality of the times. The cinema gave also form to the aspirations and dreams of people all over the world. This work will focus on the main historical factors and the conditions surrounding the history of film-making. However, it is also the case that it is simply impossible, in a work of this size, to do justice to all the many individuals, technologies and processes that have played noteworthy roles in the history of cinema. The history is not only interesting in its own right; it can also illuminate with particular clarity how the cinema works as a whole. This work consists of four main parts: the Early times, the Silent Cinema, the Sound Cinema, and the Modern Cinema from 1960 to the modern times. In each part the paper looks at history of the cinema in general. As far as possible this paper will cover each development from a broad international perspective. The Early Cinema From the beginning the cinema developed quickly. What in 1890 had been just a dream had by 1913 grown into a whole industry. First films were just moving snapshots. They were only one minute in length and nearly all consisted of just one shot. By 1905, the films were usually five to ten minutes in length and included changes of site and camera position to create a story or show a theme. Later, in the early 1910s, when the first ‘feature-length’ films appeared, there little by little emerged new techniques for handling complex stories. At this time the process of creating of films had itself grown into a large-scale business. Specialist offices had emerged, exceptionally intended to the making of films. During the 1910s the heart of supply became Los Angeles – Hollywood. The early cinema of from the mid- 1890s to the mid-1910s is often called ‘pre-Hollywood’ cinema. The cinema of this period has also been called pre-classical. Actually the styles of filmmaking common in the early years have never been completely shifted by Hollywood or classical modes, even in America. Many films continued to be pre- or at any rate non-Hollywood in their style for a long time. But it is right to say that much of the cinema development in the years from 1906 or 1907 can be considered as laying the ground for what later became the Hollywood industry. Silent Cinema On the contrary to popular belief, the history of animation did not begin with Walt Disney’s sound film Steamboat Willie in 1928. Before that film there was a popular tradition, a film industry, and a vast number of films – considering nearly 100 of Disney’s (Hayward 234). The general history of the animated film begins with the use of transient trick effects in films around the turn of the century. As several genres emerged (Westerns, chase films, etc. ). During 1906-10, there appeared at the same time films made all or mostly by the animation technique. Since most films were a single reel. There was little programmatic difference between the animated films and others. But the multi-reel film trend developed after around 1912. Animated films retained their one-reel-or-less length. Until the First World War, animation was a completely international phenomenon. However, after about 1915 the producers in the United States began to control the world market. In a quarter of a century, the silent cinema created a tradition of film comedy. The cinema arrived at the end of a century that had witnessed a rich development of popular comedy. Later, the new proletarian audiences of the great cities of Europe and America found their own theatre in music hall, variety, and musical comedy. With these popular audiences, comedy became constant demand. When life was bad, laughter was a comfort; when it was good, they wanted to enjoy themselves just the same. Famous comedy mime troupes of the music halls, like the Martinettis, the Ravels, the Hanlon- Lees, and Fred Karno’s Speechless Comedians, can be seen as direct predecessors of one-reel slapstick films. Karno, in fact, was to train two of the greatest film comedians, Charlie Chaplin and Stan Laurel (Hayward 56- 58). The term ‘documentary’ did not become popular use until the late 1920s and 1930s. In the beginning it was applied to various kinds of ‘creative’ non-fiction screen practice in the post-First World War, classical cinema era. Originating films in the category have typically comprised Robert Flah erty ‘s Nanook of the North ( 1922), various Soviet films of the 1920s such as Dziga Vertov’s The Man with the Movie Camera (Chelovek s kinoapparatom, 1929), Walter Ruttmann’s 11Berlin: Symphony of a City (Berlin: die Sinfonie der GroBstadt, 1927), and John Grierson’s Drifters ( 1929) (Cook 89). Early documentarians used the magic lantern to create complex and often sophisticated programs out of a succession of projected photographic images. The images were accompanied by a live narration, with an occasional use of music and sound effects. By the turn of the century, films were gradually replacing slides. This in turn gave rise to the new terminology. The documentary tradition preceded film and has continued into the era of television and video. In this way it was redefined in the light of technological innovations, as well as in the context of shifting social and cultural forces. British films of the period were often quite sophisticated, particularly in the comic and actuality fields. Narrative editing, too, was often innovative. Sound Cinema The development from silent to sound cinema marks a period of revolution in the history of cinema. The revolution 4can be easily dated from 6 October 1927, with the New York premiere of Warner Bros. ‘ The Jazz Singer in which Al Jolson pronounces the immortal line ‘You ain’t heard nothin’ yet’ with more or less perfect synchronization between his lips in the film and his voice recorded in parallel on a disc (Hjort 90). Filmmakers began to use innovative sound technology that produced panic in cinema industry. In the same time it encouraged experiments and hopes too. While it decreased popularity of Hollywood’s films for several years, it stimulated a rebirth of national film production all over the world. This period in the history of cinema has specific features that make it unique in comparison with the years before and after. The coming of sound itself, and its world-wide implications is the first look. Then the focus is on the world of the studios, how the system operated – particularly in Hollywood – and how different aspects of the cinema were combined together during the studio period. The studios were not entirely free to make films simply for the market. The system also encountered problems of how to regulate itself to take account of political, social, and moral concern. While other countries experienced political censorship of varying degrees of severity, the Hollywood cinema suffered relatively little interference from central government. The Hollywood was instead faced with carefully orchestrated demands for a moral clean-up and the risk of intervention by local censor boards (Neale 78-79). Along with spoken dialogue, the major innovation of the sound cinema was synchronized music. The art of musical illustration that was used during the silent period was changed by the synchronized music. A considerable difference was, certainly, that filmmakers began to use music as a part of the fictional world. For instance, music could now be introduced when the film showed an orchestra or an actor performing a song. Then, sound film would use music not only to the picture, but to dialogue as well. Music became pure background. Composition, performance, and recording were all subject to studio control, and the production of musical tracks of high quality can be counted one of the greatest achievements of the system. Outside Hollywood music tracks were often less polished. But directors were more often free to work with composers of their own choice, and Sergei Prokofiev’s music for Eisen stein ‘s Alexander Nevsky (1938) provides an interesting contrast to two classic Warner Bros. scores of the same period – Erich Korngold’s The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938) and Max Steiner’s Casablanca (1943). Modern Cinema  The most significant change in world cinema since 1945 was that produced by the breakdown of the Hollywood studio system and of its competitors and imitators elsewhere. By the early 1960s the Hollywood system was in severe disarray. Declining audiences and a series of costly flops left the major studios on the verge of bankruptcy or open to hostile take-over. While the studios experienced difficulties, new enterprises such as American International Pictures emerged. These companied made low-budget movies that were intended for the new youth and drive-in markets. Many new genres came into being. One of such innovations was the road movie. It proved to be influential not only on more mainstream American films but throughout the world. The mainstream itself was forced to innovate, drawing inspiration both from the down-market competition and from the new cinemas emerging in Europe. In Europe the most important single event was the sudden explosion on to the scene of the French New Wave – the Nouvelle Vague – with first features by Claude Chabrol, Francois Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, and Alain Resnais following each other in quick succession in 1958 and 1959 (Hjort 123). The New Wave had been briefly preceded in Britain by the ‘Free Cinema’ movement, and was followed by the ‘Young German Cinema’ which announced its existence in the Oberhausen Manifesto of 1962 and went on to renovate the lackluster West German cinema later in the decade. In Italy the change was less sudden but none the less significant, with the creation of Federico Fellini’s La dolce vita and Michelangelo Antonioni’s L’avventura in 1960. It was beginning of a new art cinema. Changes in the 1960s were not confined to Europe. The Cuban Revolution in 1959 gave an impetus to the growth of new cinemas throughout Latin America, notably in Brazil (Cook 45). In Japan the studio system which had nurtured the work of the great masters such as Mizoguchi and Ozu was also in crisis, and in the changed situation allowed for the entry on to the world stage of directors like Nagisa Oshima, who was to play a role in Japanese cinema similar to that of Godard in France. The new cinemas greatly extended the boundaries of film art. They brought new audiences into the cinema, for whom films assumed an unprecedented cultural importance. Throughout the 1960s and into the 1970s the cinema spoke more directly to these mainly young audiences than did any of the more traditional art forms. But outside Italy, France and England the innovate cinema with the new realities was not popular. Because of the limits on the size of the audience, the new cinema had to be low-budget or propped up by subsidy (sometimes both) in order to survive (Guneratne 67). The ‘new’ period in Hollywood cinema begins from the 1975 release of Steven Spielberg’s Jaws. The film signaled the birth of a new, younger generation of Hollywood directors. Born mainly in the 1940s, they both studied the films of classical Hollywood and were influenced by the filmmakers of world cinema. George Lucas and Steven Spielberg made blockbusters with classic principles. One of the most famous filmmaker in the 1980s has been Woody Allen. Allen has made famous films, such as Interiors (1978) and Stardust Memories (1980). Conclusion There exists recognition of the fact that from the beginning the cinema has developed in remarkably similar ways all over the world. But it is also recognized that from the end of the First World War onwards, one film industry – the American – has played a main role in the creation of world’s cinema. However, many nations have created their own, culturally identifiable, genre films that proved extremely popular during the 1970s and 1980s. In India, for instance, a remarkable 250 film-making companies, using more than 60 studios, continued to produce 700 feature films a year throughout the 1980s (Kindem 23). The central government encouraged the making of Indian films by requiring all commercial cinemas to screen at least one Indian film per show. A star system, much like Hollywood’s of the 1930s and 1940s, is strong in all parts of the world. Indeed Indian stars working on several productions at the same time can become enormously wealthy. The nations survived mainly by learning from Hollywood cinema. At the same time Europe produced a product that corresponded to needs that Hollywood cinema could not supply. Asian countries have been strong producers of film. Hong Kong, a country of only 5 million people, produces more films than Hollywood. In the 1990s Hong Kong’s citizens watched Hollywood and native productions in about equal numbers. In the 1980s Hong Kong martial arts films were distributed world-wide in large numbers. With broadcasting systems combined with the rise of satellite-distributed services Hollywood penetrates even these markets. Hollywood produced the most famous icons in the world such as Steven Spielberg and Arnold Schwarzenegger. With its international control, the Hollywood corporations could and will define standards of film style, form, and content.

Applying Six Sigma to Toyota Motor Manufacturing, U.S.A., Inc. (an Operations Management Commentary)

The Toyota Motor Manufacturing, U. S. A. , Inc. (TMM) case involves a scenario where – as a result of deviating from Toyota Production System (TPS) practices. TMM found itself faced with quality issues (i. e. , a â€Å"hook† component in the car seat would break during installation) that created a bottleneck in the production process, a pile-up of cars with quality issues waiting to be addressed at the clinic and overflow parking areas of the Kentucky plant – and therefore failed to avoid some of the â€Å"wastes† (i. e. wastes of time, material and production utility as a result of defective products) that the TPS philosophy in itself was designed to eliminate. In the context of a customer value-driven approach, this meant the seat problem gave issues to the final assembly team (e. g. , being bulky and prone to damage, it was likely time-consuming to install), the QC team (e. g. , in relation to crash-test performance, and also in terms of not being broke n or defective), the ultimate customer (i. e. , in terms of surface finish). The goal of the Six Sigma strategy is to improve the quality of process outputs by addressing errors through minimizing variability in the manufacturing process – i. e. , the production process can statistically be expected to be free of errors or defects at the Six Sigma confidence level (effectively only 3. 4 defects per million). In the case of a manufacturing entity like TMM, Six Sigma could be implemented through the so-called â€Å"DMAIC† methodology, which involves defining the problem, measuring and analysing relevant data (i. e. statistical data), improving or optimizing – based on the data analysis, and controlling and monitoring the implemented improvements to address any deviations from the optimized process. TPS and Six Sigma philosophies both employ process-based (as opposed to a functional) approaches to process optimization and improving quality. However, the Six Sigma approach takes this to another level by putting problem solving in the context of reducing risks of â€Å"deviation† from the norm. Six Sigma calls for the use of verifiable quantitative data – i. e. , statistical data and analysis – as basis for designing or optimizing a process (i. e. attempting to eliminate risk of variation), and quantitatively monitoring compliance (or deviations) from these targets. In the case of TMM’s seat hook problem, TPS would ideally have called for production to stop at the first sign of problem, and drilling down to the source of the problem through techniques such as the â€Å"5 Why’s†. A statistical approach, however, such as determining the number of defects in relation to the entire production lot, and in relation to Company standards, and subsequently monitoring whether the improvements to address the problems are operating as designed could have provided a more rationalized solution. Six Sigma could also benefit TMM through improving the â€Å"value† of the suppliers, by helping them improve their own processes and products. For example, if the â€Å"5 Why’s† pointed to a problem in KFS’ own production process, TMM could work with KFS to obtain statistical data as basis for comparing production output with quality standards (e. g. , defect rate, or maybe even compliance with existing manufacturing tolerance levels), identify deviations/ problems, and monitor effectiveness of solutions. By using a Six Sigma approach as early as the supplier level, TMM should, theoretically, be able to expect a higher quality level in the production inputs that it receives, which invariably, should also translate into a higher quality level the finished product. Six Sigma could also be used to optimize the overall efficiency of the production process. Six Sigma could be used to determine standards for production efficiency, like task times, cycle times and throughput times, and if monitored properly, deviations from the standard should easily be detected. When combined with other TPS techniques such as the â€Å"5 Why’s†, the problem – once identified and defined properly – could be addressed immediately, and Six Sigma approach (i. e. , DMAIC) should again measure the effectiveness of new solutions. From the broader perspective, Six Sigma as a philosophy benefits the Company’s stakeholders by adding value to TMM as a whole – the assurance of being able to produce quality products with virtually zero defects raises the overall perception of TMM and its products. Likewise, on the micro perspective, with each process being viewed as a customer of the preceding one, Six Sigma adds value to the predecessor (i. e. , â€Å"supplier†, or preceding production task) by providing assurance over the quality of the production inputs. Nonetheless, the success of any such philosophy – whether TPS, or Six Sigma, or a combination of both – really depends on the people tasked with implementing the philosophy. Six Sigma approach at TMM may still be doomed without a corresponding improvement in the culture and mindset of people attempting to employ the philosophy. References: -Kazuhiro Mishina, â€Å"Toyota Motor Manufacturing, U. S. A. , Inc. † (Business Case), HBS Premier Business Case Collection, September 8, 1992 -De Feo, Joseph A. ; Barnard, William (2005). JURAN Institute's Six Sigma Breakthrough and Beyond – Quality Performance Breakthrough Methods. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. -Tennant, Geoff (2001). SIX SIGMA: SPC and TQM in Manufacturing and Services. Gower Publishing, Ltd.. p. 6. ISBN 0566083744.

Discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 47

Discussion - Essay Example Lastly, the system can be customized to meet consumer’s desires (X-cart, p. 1). My second choice cart is however, the CS-3 cart because of its beneficial features such as universal applicability to transaction on any size of website. It also has a user-friendly search engine besides its internalized content management features. The shopping cart can also be customized to meet customers’ changing preferences. The two carts are therefore user friendly and can be customized to meet specified consumers’ interests, features that identify their marketing impacts (Cs-cart, p. 1). My most preferred choices for security are â€Å"avast internet security 7† and â€Å"Bidfinder total security suite 12† (Pcmag, p. 1). I prefer the products because of their high ratings in countering different internet threats. They therefore guarantee a high level of security for a safe online commerce. I would however prefer Bidfinder total security suite 12 because it has higher ratings, a factors that identifies higher utility (Pcmag, p.

Law of tort essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Law of tort - Essay Example In the case of Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police2 the Court considered the various kinds of relationships which would qualify as close ties, and parent/child relationships and family ties including the spouse relationship were deemed to be strong enough to establish the close nature of the ties. By applying the (a) requirement, it may be noted that Roger, Thomas and Nicolas will have a claim on the basis of close ties to the victim. However, on the basis of criterion (b) it may be noted that Roger and Nicholas were not actually present at the site of the accident and neither had directly witnessed the accident. Therefore, they may not be eligible for recoveries. But Thomas will be entitled to claim damages on the basis of both proximity to the incident and the fact that the injured person is a loved one. Moreover, he would also be classified as a rescuer according to Chadwick v BRB3 and the Court has clearly stated in this case that rescuers who suffer psychiatric damages as a result of their rescue efforts will be eligible for recoveries. This was also upheld on appeal in the case of McLoughlin v O Brien4 that rescuers suffering from psychiatric illness will be eligible for damages. There is a strong case in Thomas’ favor in that he was directly at the site, the injured one was his own brother and the psychiatric illness he is suffering from now is directly attributable to the injury. The only factor that could possibly limit his recoveries to some extent could be the time that has passed since the accident, however if his anxiety attacks have commenced immediately after the accident and are continuing to date, he will certainly be eligible to make a claim. In the case of Roger and Nicholas, it is unlikely that Nicholas can make a claim at all, in spite of the fact that his son was severely injured. For one thing, he was not in close proximity to the incident, he did not witness it at all and he was told about

AOL Project GSB Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

AOL Project GSB - Essay Example The CEO Sally Smith, a mother of two, is a graduate of the University of North Dakota and holds BSc in Accounting and business administration. She held the position of chief financial officer at Dahlberg Inc. for 11 years before she was hired by BWLD in 1994 as a CFO and promoted to CEO in 1996. The strategies that Buffalo Wild Wings put forward in 2013 accomplished its goals to remain a high-growth, category-leading concept. It has significantly funded new strategic plans, invests in growth and imperatively distributed its earnings to shareholders. Its gross margin over the period 2013 was 27.0% and the operating margin was 9.6%, percentages that are above industry average. The company’s net margin stood at 6.5%. The company is fuelling its growth by increasing demand for its products and services. BWLD’s gross margin is inching upward implying that the company is continuously beating competitors and acquiring domination in the restaurant industry. The company continue s expanding through mergers and acquisitions and the dividends and its payout ratio upsurge. The risks and uncertainties involved in investing in the company are highlighted to caution investors against potential market failures and impending indecisions. The stock price increased by 52% and the company provided substantial value to its shareholders with a EPS $3.80, DEPS of $3.79. Revenue increased and was used to offer a salary increment to its directors. Apparently, its impressive stock performance acted as a momentous factor that fascinated investors. The 10k annual report reveals that the latest earnings that enable it to actively acquire a chain of restaurants that are small to reduce the acquisition cost. The buffalo wild wing company is in a position and determined to expand its base to targeted North American. This started as a result of

The apostle Paul Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The apostle Paul - Essay Example Ironically, Paul did not consider himself to be Christian, nor a father of a new religion. Rather, he thought of himself as an observant Jew who believed the experience of Christ was a natural extension of Judaism. The prolific and well-documented writings of Paul, from his astute letters to the Corinthians to the Book of Romans, offer remarkable insight into his attitude and interpretation of how the Scriptures applied to the great moral and spiritual questions of his contemporaries. Paul's writings dealt with issues from homosexuality to the treatment of women. From them, one might glean a hint of what Paul's attitude would be with regard to the major moral questions of today. This paper considers how Paul would view the present day issue of capital punishment. The major scriptural evidence concerning this question seems to suggest that Paul would likely support the notion that capital punishment is just. Several of his writings have been interpreted as holding, implicitly or explicitly, that the state's authority to punish wrongdoers with death is upheld by God. For Paul, whose life's course was directed by perhaps the best known episode of capital punishment in human history, and who ultimately met the fate of a martyr himself through capital punishment, the notion that there were offenses worthy of state imposed death was natural and logical. Paul was a product of his time, and his attitudes reflected that reality. The Historical Paul According to Jeffery Sheler, "The Apostle Paul, some scholars now believe, was more instrumental in the founding of Christianity than anyone else--even Jesus himself" (par. 1). He goes on to describe Paul as "a tireless mercenary and prolific theologian [who] almost single-handedly transformed a fringe movement of messianic Jews into a vibrant new faith that, within a few generations, would sweep the Greco-Roman world and alter the course of Western history" (par. 2). Paul achieved a "larger-than-life" stature in the early Church that made him as much a target of those seeking to quell his revolutionary ideology as he was a spiritual leader of a budding new sect of Judaism. "He was reviled by religious and political adversaries and arrested, beaten, exiled, and eventually executed for his zealous preaching in the Roman precincts of the Mediterranean rim" (par. 3). John McRay, in his seminal work on Paul's life published in 2003, emphasizes that "Paul was not the founder of Christianity, that he never ceased to be a Jew, and that Christianity is not a Gentile religion" (p. 12). According to McRay, Paul's contribution to the development of Christianity was his assertion of the doctrine that either Jews or Gentiles could be saved through baptism in Christ. "Monotheism as seen in the faith of Abraham was the foundation of the Judeo-Christian faith Paul proclaimed, and God is thus the Father of all believers" (p. 12). Thus, Paul's teaching molded an evolved and progressive formulation of Judaism; and he did not consider believers in Christ to be practicing a separate religion. Many biographical glimpses of Paul's life and his work can be found in the Acts of the Apostles. Born as Saul of Tarsus and brought up under the strict orthodox laws of Judaism, Paul's early career was actually devoted largely to persecution of Christians (par. 12). He subscribed to a particularly zealous sect of Judaism that advocated a kind of holy war against perceived

Alcan write up Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Alcan write up - Case Study Example Some of the trends in its mergers and acquisitions are indications of this. However, the company has not sought to benefit from operational synergies that are available to it. Organizing Model – In this model several business unit or process leaders in the company make there own decisions. This is akin to a feudal system. This indicates that a decentralized approach is taken towards the organization and management of resources. Architecture – The IT governance style appears to be that of anarchy as each user group pursues its own IT agenda. This has resulted in over 1000 applications. Of this over 400 relates to finance. This has been that way even as the CFO as head of Corporate IT. Standards – The governance style of anarchy prevails as there are really no set standards to follow. The various user groups in each business unit appear to do as they please without any regard for what is happening in similar areas in the organization. Resources – Each business unit decides on the resources that it needs. No attempt is made to determine if the competencies exist in the organization. As a result 80% of IT budget is spent on outsourcing, equipment and software. This would seem to imply that with all the mergers and acquisitions the competencies in IT has not improved but has only gotten worst. Governance is structured in this way at Alcan because after mergers and acquisitions take place the companies basically retain their identity as separate business units. There is no attempt to benefit from economies of scale in terms of merging similar IT projects. Thus on Ouelette’s arrival three separate SAP implementation were taking place at the same time. The advantages of this type of decentralized structure are that: it allows the CIO to concentrate on key IT decisions; and the business unit executives are free to carry out their management function as they were used to before the merger. They operate as before the merger and

Behaviour & Individual Differences Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Behaviour & Individual Differences - Essay Example He frequently has trouble turning in homework and loses things such as pencils, books etc. The teachers have spoken to the child but to no avail. When asked why he has not done the homework, he says he has lost the assignment paper. They have also spoken to his parents. The parents also report the same behaviour at the home. The teachers at previous school have also reported the similar behaviour at the school. Since the start of traditional education, the debate has been ranging regarding teaching the students of various sections of the population in one classroom and yet fulfilling the individual range of need of any child. Today, this concern has been expressed and addressed by lot of institutions as well as experienced educational experts around the world. Since, the onset of eighteenth century, the governments are taking lot of interest in the spread of both quantity and quality of the education for all sections of the population. In addition to that, they are also concerned about the education of children with various needs such as children who are affected by ADHD. To this end, they have enacted several laws which were designed to benefit the students (Cialdini, 2007) 3. The Education Act implemented in 1944, organized the education system in three categories as per the requirement of the child such as primary, secondary and tertiary. It also classified the 11 categories handicap. 5. The Warnock report in 1978, the term SEN was mentioned which replaced 11 categories of Handicap. This report also established the 5 stage approach for assessment and recognition. The authorities also considered the SEN in the mainstream education. 6. With Education Act in 1981, the authorities enacted the recommendations from Warnock Report. The recommendations which were enacted were the 5 stage approach, abolishment of handicap categories. It also included the introduction of

Case study Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Case study - Assignment Example e liable to pay capital gains tax on the sale value if the price at which he sells is higher than the market price of the shares on the date he inherited them. If the total gain is less than  £ 10,000, no tax is payable and of course, sale at a lower price also does not attract tax (HMRC, 2012). 3. Critical Illness Cover pays out a lump sum amount when a specified illness occurs, which for Kyle’s mother was a minor stroke. Once the claim amount is paid, the coverage ceases and she is not entitled to any other payments from the insurance company. A Permanent Health Insurance (PHI) policy would have paid her up to 65% of her pre-tax earnings until her normal date of retirement which is 65 years of age (Conner, 2013). When Kyle’s mother first considered insurance, the PHI policy would have been a better choice as it would have covered any medical condition that prevented her from working whereas the Critical Illness Policy would have covered only a specified list of ailments. Since a medical condition that prevents work could occur at any age, the PHI policy would have paid her money each year until her scheduled retirement age (Bevis, 2009). For Kyle’s mother, the question now is whether the  £ 68,000 lump sum she received from her Critical Illness policy at the age 59 is better than 65% of her earnings for 6 years that she would have received with the PHI policy. This question can be resolved by finding out the yearly payments a PHI policy would need to make for 6 years that would equal the present value of the lump sum she received. The interest rate is assumed as 5%. The calculation is made in the table below and shows that an annual payment of  £ 13,397.19 for 6 years from the PHI policy would have the present value that equals the lump sum of  £ 68,000. To get these annual payments, the mother’s annual salary when she had the stroke should have been  £ 20,611.06. 4. Kyle and Helen need to make a personal financial plan to meet both

Waste Management in Fonterra Tirau Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Waste Management in Fonterra Tirau - Assignment Example Tirau site produces both technical and edible casein, manufacturing about 7000 tonnes per year for export to the USA, China, Japan and Europe. Fonterra Tirau contribute a lot to the South Waikato community and its members. Fonterra Tirau site conducts regular neighborhood clean-ups and helps the unpaid assistant fire brigade in their activities. Biogas produced from the site’s waste water treatment system is used to partly fuel the site’s boilers. Fonterra Tirau site owns one of the largest waste water treatment plants in the Southern part of Hemisphere and all other sites in the region relays on this site (Franklin, R 2007). A detailed EIA report that was submitted to Waikato department of Environment should have the following details which are the main components of EIA: Screening, Scoping, prediction and mitigation, management and monitoring or audit. Screening is the process of deciding on whether an EIA is required. EIA may be based on site-specific information. For example in this case before the Tirau site was established EIA should have been conducted because it is likely to cause a lot of environmental issues which require to be properly mitigated. Guidelines for whether or not an EIA is required will be country specific depending on the laws or norms in operation (Manning 1986). Scoping is conducted early in the project cycle at the same time as outline planning and pre-feasibility studies. Scoping is the process of identifying the key environmental issues and is perhaps the most important step in an EIA. Decision makers, the local community and the technical community, have an interest in assisting to premeditate the issues which should be dealt with (Wathern, 1988). Prediction and mitigation follows once the scoping process is finished once the major impacts to be studied have been identified, prediction and mitigation measures are then discussed. Mitigation is defined as a set of

Modern and Contemporary Essay Example for Free

Modern and Contemporary Essay This paper deals with two things in relation to pantheism: first a few samples of the contemporary literature, which argue very little and unpersuasively, However, two major historical theorists of pantheism, Spinoza and his later follower, Schelling, serve to rescue the theory and place it on a firmer, more scientific ground. Pantheism has taken many forms throughout its history, and no one definition will suffice to take in all particular manifestations of this phenomenon. One of the main disconnects concerning pantheism as an ontology is to what extent Pantheism can be called a religion: this is the real issue. The modern, contemporary pantheists seem to have no religion whatsoever: no God, no doctrine. The contemporary readings on this question seem to â€Å"socialize† the vague â€Å"interconnections of all living things. † (Russell, 2008, 2). To merely attach a vague feeling of the â€Å"sacred† to a purely secular view of natural interconnections is not to create a religion. And hence, the problem. One might take the view that there are generally two forms of pantheism over time: the modish, trendy version that seeks to sacralize the secular phenomenon of nature, and a far more sophisticated form of pantheism made famous by Baruch Spinoza and his later pupil (of sorts) Friedrich Schelling. Both of these questions will be dealt with in this paper. First, we will deal with the contemporary readings on this subject, and then, the far more substantial questions of pantheism brought up by the Dutch philosopher. Standing in the Light is a book that says very little. It is heavy in vague emotive connectiveness, very light on definition and ontology. Ultimately, the â€Å"light† is whatever you want it to be: it can be a religious figure, a philosophical idea or merely a feeling, hence reducing it to nothingness by attempting to cover every emotive reaction (Russell, 2008, 3-4). In this view, she seeks to redefine atheism (cf page 4) as a view where the â€Å"universe† is seen as not sacred. But since the concept of the sacred is never defined, there are no atheists. Or, better, that this vulgar view of pantheism, which is reduced to a feeling of awe in the face of nature (as representing both good and evil, as she holds, 87ff), is itself atheism in that there is no God, but there is an awe in the face of nature’s grandeur. Few atheists would recoil at awe when looking at nature. In this same vein lies the work of Paul Harrison (2004). Again (35), he holds that â€Å"nature is to be revered. † It is unclear whether he thinks nature of â€Å"god,† since god is an elastic term that covers the object of one’s awe or respect. His dispensing with philosophical rigor is typified in his manipulation of Anselm’s famous ontological argument for god’s existence. In Harrison’s case, he mutilates it beyond recognition. The original argument was, to summarize, that god is that about which nothing greater can be conceived. But since this object must have existence (since to have existence is to be greater) god must exist, since that would be the greatest thing conceptualizable. Harrison does not seem to understand the nature of this controversial view. He assumes (Harrison, 36) that nature is the greatest thing that can be conceived, and hence, is god. This has no bearing on the argument ascribed to Anselm of Canterbury. He also seems to completely misunderstand Aristotle’s argument from causality. On page 38, Harrison holds that the â€Å"skeptical† answer rejects the necessity of a first cause, there is no need for one. If one can imagine a limitless future, one can imagine a limitless past. Since no one can imagine or visualize a â€Å"limitless† future, the same might be said of the past. Harrison seems to posit an actual religious element to pantheism in that it holds that matter is eternal, ever existing, always changing, and hence, it is a belief to be taken on faith, and hence, religious. A mildly interesting argument is his philosophy of history. He holds that history contains three movements: the hunter gatherer stage, agricultural and technological (Harrison, 50-53). It goes like this: at one time, man lived in full accordance with nature as hunter’s and gatherers. Then he decided to become settled. This was the great evil: settled agriculture places man as master of nature. Only in the technological phase was nature reintroduced, permitting a rational eco-centrist to rebuild our planet. Making sense of this argument is difficult: there are several fallicies: first, that the hunter gatherer lives in accordance with nature. He seems to have the hidden premise that all things primitive must be eco-friendly. Second, that agriculture means that man masters nature. This seems hard to swallow, since the agriculturalist mind, up until the 20th century, worked as a partner of nature, not its master. The explicit Baconian idea of dominating nature is precisely the beginnings of the industrial revolution. The argument is that when people no longer had any connection to nature, no longer lived off the land, they could then romanticize nature, and hence, see it â€Å"for its own sake† (Harrison, 52). In other words, when the technological revolution created urbanization and rape the landscape, the now alienated urbanite could make of nature of object of romantic devotion. It is precisely in the leaving of the land that one can then see it as an aesthetic object. Lastly, the author refuses to deal with the question of determinism (60). The pantheist determinism argument might look like this: all things are interconnected, the force, the unity of the interconnection is â€Å"divine,† human beings are part of this divine interconnection and hence, to conclude, humans are determined by these connections. It is difficult to wiggle out of this argument, an argument that is not found in Harrison’s book, but dismissed regardless. If freedom exists, it cannot be material. If it is not material, it is spirit. If it is spirit, then it must have a cause. But the concept of pantheism presented by Harrison posits no cause. Hence, human beings are merely determinations of material reality and hence determined. Harrison denies that human beings are determined, but does not explain how one can get out of the pantheist argument, unless one posit’s human beings as, to some extent spiritual beings and hence outside of the natural, universal causal chains that are so evocative of reverence. This is another serious flaw. Next, we have the short piece by Wood (2005). Wood is not so much arguing here for pantheism as for evolution, upon which all contemporary theories of pantheism seem to rest. This piece is basically an attack on fundamentalism, which is defined as that belief system that rejects evolution in that it rejects the principle of change inherent in all things. Pantheism has no belief system, only evolutionary ecology. One need not be a pantheist to accept everything that Wood says, it is a non-philosophical piece. Far more substantial is that work by Steinhart (2004) on the question of ontology. This is an interesting survey piece dealing with the nature of pantheism from the point of view of materialism, Platonism and Pythagoreanism. But just as interesting is his idea of the nature of god: God, in traditional theology must be: supernatural, complex (in the sense of maximal inclusivity), God must represent Himself to man, and God must be holy (Steinhart, 2004, 65-66). Of course most of these can be challenged. In Christianity, for example, God is not complex, he is simple. He is not merely supernatural, but exists within nature as its designer and guide (thought this is never an ontological connection). Nevertheless, the key to the argument is maximum inclusivity, which is not an attribute of God in traditional theology in the sense Steinhart means it, and it is question begging in terms of pantheism, since the argument presented her is that the nature god of the pantheists is by definition all inclusive, and hence, comes closest to the â€Å"traditional† idea of God. He seems to engage in the same logical fallacies as Harrison. Steinhart fails on several levels. First he fails to explain how the materialist whole can be â€Å"holy,† in any sense. Second, he fails to show how the disembodied forms of Plato can be associated with pantheism in the definition he provides. In fact, the relationship between the forms and matter is precisely Plato’s rejection of earlier Greek pantheism (referenced by Russell, 2008) and, more importantly, is nearly identical with the early Christian and Augustinian view of the relationship between God and creation. God is identified with nature as its guide and creator, but is not identified with nature simpliciter. This is a severe logical flaw. He has better luck with Pythagoras, though it is possible to see a similar objection arising. Nevertheless, it remains the case that this work also fails to do justice to pantheism. The greatest and most interesting approach to pantheism is the creation of Baruch de Spinoza. Here is an intelligent, logical and extremely interesting of the idea. Nearly all the works surveyed reference him, but only for a short time, as it is clear that few of the above authors have spent the large amount of time necessary to master the difficult system of the Dutch metaphysician. Spinoza is the greatest and most intelligent manifestation of the Pantheist idea, and hence, should be treated at length. Spinoza begins with the concept of Substance, which is to be identified with god. Substance is the â€Å"in itself. † That is, it is something that defines both affirmation, since affirmation requires negation (Parkinson, 1977, 451). Substance has gone beyond affirmation/negation because it is the whole, the everything. Hence,. Substance is its only name, and that incomplete. If substance in the Aristotelian sense is that which remains unchanging, that which survives change, for Spinoza, since all Aristotelian substances are part of a larger sphere of interconnections, the only real substance is Substance, or god. All things are determinations of God. There is no external reason for its existence. It is eternal causality. Of this Substance there are two Attributes, thought and extension, experienced as different but making reference to two forms of expression os substance relative to the limited sense experience of human beings. Further, these attributes are divided into a huge multiplicity of modes, which might be called all particular things, which are incomplete existences by definition. What is worth mentioning is that Spinoza holds that these attributes that subdivide into modes are not real. They are experienced, but this experience derives from the limited abilities of the human observer. But God in Himself is Substance that contains infinite attributes, only two of which are available to human beings. The attributes must be infinite because, given the nature fo Substance, there is nothing to constrain their development. A fully understood attribute of an infinite Substance is by definition infinite (Spinoza, 1927, 124-125). Science might struggle with this. First, it suggest that science is only a tiny form of knowledge in a sea of infinity. In other words, science can only deal with incomplete experiences relative to the limited observational capacities of the person. A â€Å"fact† in the truest sense of Spinoza’s pantheism is that which contains all reality, it must be Substance and only Substance. Anything less would be limited, and hence abstract, outside of its true context and contingent. Even Spinoza’s epistemology is limited in the sense that sense data is only the persistence of a pattern of perception. Hence, there is no direct human mode of perceiving God. God is full interconnectedness (the phenomenon, th international of Modes relative to both attributes, i. e. thought and extension make up the same Substance relative to humans) that has its root in the Substance itself (the noumenon, outside of experience) (Rocca, 1996, 192). Spinoza writes: Hence it follows, firstly, that there is no cause, either external to God or within Him, that can excite Him to act except the perfection of his own nature. It follows, secondly, that God alone is a free cause; for God alone exists from the necessity alone of His own nature. Therefore He alone is a free cause (Spinoza, 1927, 132) . Several things come from this: first, that human beings are determined, being themselves manifestations of the divine nature, containing in themselves the two attributes of thought or extension, the only two forms of experience permitted to man. That this determination is a good thing in that all things are pre-determined in the infinite nature of God, and hence, there is little to be done but live peacefully. But it should also be clear that there is no emotive attachment to this will-less and thought-less entity (Spinoza, 1927, 132). God is God only in that He is Substance. He is a metaphysical principle, not a cause of awe or worship. He is substance deduced logically in the following way: A cause of a thing must exist either inside or outside the object being caused. The reason for a square to exist is not to be found in the square itself. There must be a cause, then, outside it, a cause that has made it necessary to exist. Hence, Substance, which exists necessarily, is uncaused. This is because if Substance (that which survives all change) has a cause outside itself, then it is not Substance; that Substance must be it. Hence, there is a cause that is uncaused, Substance, and this is what survives all change, existing necessarily and the (logical) cause of all things (Spinoza, 1927, 124, â€Å"On the Essence of God. † also cf. Bennet, 1997) Friedrich von Schelling is another metaphysician who skirted the concept of pantheism, and is often considered one. Here we have a post-Spinozistic idea of the Spinozian concept of God, taking liberally from Spinoza and yet another interesting approach to the concept of pantheism. Schelling’s basic metaphysic is the spiritual exists as such in nature. Putting this differently, nature is the physical expression of the spiritual, but constantly limited by materiality. Even further, the pantheism derives form the idea that nature eventually creates the conditions necessary for the spirit, or conscious life. Here, the idea of spirit deriving from nature is posited from the circular concept that nature is spirit in expression in matter (Bowie, 2001). The development of the spirit in nature moves like this: 1. The absolute principle is the ground, just as in Spinoza, between the conscious and sub-conscious life, that is, sprit and matter respectively, since here, matter is merely â€Å"slumbering spirit. † 2. Nature and spirit are identical to Spinoza’s two modes, extension and thought respectively. Nature tends to objectification, while spirit tends to subjetification, but there is no ultimate distinction between the two. 3. These are held together in actual life by force: attraction/repulsion; light, gravity, while in spirit these forces take the form of knowledge, will, etc. 4. Both these forces are attributes (in Spinoza’s sense, not modes, since they are not â€Å"particular† and hence unreal, things) derive from the single Substantial source, not called Substance, but the Absolute. (Snow, 1996) 5. The movement of Substance then, is the reconciliation of opposites: thought and extension, matter and spirit, object and subject. Spirit will suffuse matter, matter will be saturated with spirit. This is the evolutionary picture of Schelling prior to Darwin (and is interesting on that account alone). In other words, Schelling differs from Spinoza in granting some limited â€Å"will† to the otherwise abstract absolute: the will for interpenetrating and the end of philosophy with a spiritualized matter. God will be present in matter in full when consciousness and matter merge, or more accurately, nature is suffused with consciousness. This paper has done two things: first it basically dispensed with the contemporary literature in pantheism is non-scientific and hence non-philosophical. Instead, this paper has briefly summarized two major pantheistic writers and metaphysician who are highly related in terms of basic ideas, Spinoza and schelling. In their view of pantheism, the absolute/substance is necessary existence. This is posited and proved because it is impossible to imagine a cause without origin, or a causal chain with ether no purpose or no beginning. Spinoza does not believe that causes exist eternally, but that Substance does: time, and hence, cause, is a human, mental construct. A serious, philosophical pantheism avoids the problems mentioned above, and posits a Substance or Absolute that is conscious experienced in forms or modes. All things are God in that all things are expressions of God. References: Russell, Sharman. Standing in the Light: My Life as a Pantheist. Basic, 2008. Harrison, Paul. Elements of Pantheism. Media Creations, 2004. Wood, Harold. â€Å"Practice of Pantheistic Mindfulness. † Pantheistic Vision 24, 2005. Steinhart, E. â€Å"Pantheism and Current Ontology. † Religious Studies 40: pp 1-18 Parkinson, HGR. â€Å"Hegel, Pantheism and Spinoza. † The Journal of the History of Ideas. 38, 1977: 449-459 Spinoza, Baruch de. Ethics and Other Writings. Joseph Ratner, Trans. Modern Library, 1927. Bennett, Jonathan. â€Å"Spinoza’s Metaphysics. † in The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza. Cambridge University Press, 1996. Pps 61-89 Della Rocca, Michael. â€Å"Spinoza’s Metaphysical Psychology. † in The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza. Cambridge University Press, 1996. Pps 192-267 Bowie, Andrew. â€Å"Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University Press, 2001. Snow, Dale. Schelling and the End of Idealism. SUNY Press, 1996.

Indias Foreign Policy Towards China: An Analysis

Indias Foreign Policy Towards China: An Analysis KAUTILYAS THOUGHTS ON FOREIGN POLICY AND ANALYSE ITS RELEVANCE TO MODERN INDIA PARTICULARLY WITH REGARDS TO CHINA CHAPTER I METHODOLOGY General 1. The making of foreign policy is an exercise to achieve ends and means of a nation state. Conceptually it is based on long term goals and related short term objectives. It is the product of past history, geography, evolving national power and prevalent international environment, which is largely out of countrys control[1]. 2. Indian Foreign Policy towards China was initially based on idealism of Nehru, steered towards realism by Mrs Indira Gandhi, asserted by Rajiv Gandhi and culminated with India going overtly nuclear under Vajpayee in May 1998. From Hindi-Chini bhai bhai to potential enemy number one to great friend, India just does not know how to deal with its neighbourhood dragon that has played its cards so skilfully vis-à  -vis India. 3. Indias dominant geostrategic location, vast natural and technological manpower resources, a vibrant emerging economy backed by strong military and nuclear capability, visible soft power and presence of the Indian Diaspora the world over, make it an ideal candidate to be a major player in the world in general and South Asian region in particular. 4. India and China are the two major powers in Asia with global aspirations and some significant conflicting interests. As a result, some amount of friction in their bilateral relationship is inevitable. The geopolitical reality of Asia makes sure that it will be extremely difficult, if not impossible, for Hindi-Chini to be bhai-bhai (brothers) in the foreseeable future. If India and China continue to rise in the next few years, a security competition between the two regional giants will be all but inevitable. If India is serious about its desire to emerge as a major global power, then it will have to tackle the challenge of Chinas rise. A rising China will not tolerate a rising India as its peer competitor. Even if a rising India does not have any intention of becoming a regional hegemon, China will try its best to constrain India as it has already done to a large extent. And it is that containment that India has to guard against. India should make a serious attempt to manage the fr ictions by expanding the zone of cooperation with allies even as it tries to steadfastly pursue its national interests. 5. Indian foreign policy agenda should be driven by only Indias national security imperatives. India needs to be more pro-active, consistent, and realistic when engaging China. It is time for India to realise that Its great power aspirations cannot be realised without a cold-blooded realistic assessment of its own strategic interests in an anarchic international system where there are no permanent friends or enemies, only permanent interests. 6. It would be prudent to look, into the wisdom of Kautilyas , Arthashastra, a treatise on polity and statecraft to learn the lessons on war and strategy , national power and national security and threat perception and threat assessment. Statement of Problem 7. To study Kautilyas thoughts on strategy and analyse its relevance to the present day Indian Geo-political environment with particular regards to China. Justification of the Study 8. Kautilyas Arthashastra has been recognised the world over as an invaluable treatise on all facets of statecraft and polity. Its eternal wisdom and timelessness can be gauged from the fact that it is still quoted by scholars, academicians, bureaucrats and soldiers alike the world over. The interest generated in this epic illustrates that the thoughts on strategy to sustain and advance a state still provides valuable lessons. The twentieth century which has seen two world wars of long duration and host of other conflicts worldwide has also generated a fairly large number of studies on strategy commensurate with the advances in technology and new methods in warfare. But there is certain universality about classical strategic thoughts which prompts academics and scholars to go back to these works both in terms of comparative analysis and their reinterpretation in the changing world. 9. Strategy over the ages has been defined in different ways reflective of the times in which they were made and the existing interstate relations and economic and social state of a nation. Higher or Grand strategy is hardly understood nor does it seem to have been practised in India. It is therefore important to study the various facets of this vital subject as propounded by Kautilya in his Arthashastra, as it is so critical for the existence and security of a nation. Scope 10. The Arthashastra is a compendium on various aspects of statecraft and lays down measures to be followed by a king to sustain and advance a state. The contents of this treatise are very exhaustive covering a broad spectrum to include the minor details at one end to grand strategy on the other. However this study concentrates on the various facets of stratagem enunciated by Kautilya and analyse their relevance to modern India particularly with regards to China Method of Data Collection 11. All the information for this study has been gathered from various books (refer bibliography) and internet. Content 12. Background. Kautilyas Arthashastra is an excellent treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy. It is said to have been written by Kautilya, also known by the name Chanakya or Vishnugupta, the prime minister of Indias first great emperor, Chandragupta Maurya. This chapter will include the following:- (a) Authenticity and date of Arthashastra. (b) Historical account of life of Kautilya. 13. Kautilyas Foreign Policy. In Interstate relations power constitutes the ability of a nation to impose its will on another nation despite resistance. This Chapter will include:- (a) Saptanga concept of state. Kautilyas theory of the state describes the seven constituent elements of any state[2] and is an exposition of the theory of the Circle of States (The mandala theory) as the basis for a foreign policy of expansion by conquest. The seven constituents are the basis of the national power and happiness. He then relates as to how national power varies due to expansion or calamities and how pursuance of national interest is directly related to the possession of national power. (b) Postulates of foreign policy. As a political realist, Kautilya assumed that every nation acts to maximize power and self-interest, and therefore moral principles or obligations have little or no force in actions among nations[3]. Kautilyas postulates on foreign policy international relations, national security to include internal and external security, war waging methodology to include Mantrayuddha or War by Counsel, Prakasayuddha or Open War, kutayuddha or Concealed War, Gudayuddha or Clandestine War. 14. Mandala Concept as the Basis of National Strategy. Kautilya, says that the the aggressor (Vijigishu), should conclude, peace when he finds that he is weaker than the enemy[4]; he should wage war when he finds himself to be stronger; he should adopt neutrality when assesses that neither he nor his enemy can settle the score; he should seek refuge when he is weak; and he should adopt the duel policy in a contingency requiring the help from, another ruler. War and foreign policy issues are thus decided in an ad hoc framework of political expediency. When progress is equally attainable by means of peace and war, Kautilya says that the former is to be preferred. This is so, for war involves expenditure in men and money, residence in a foreign land, and suffering.This chapter will include the following:- (a) Mandala Theory. Kautilya believed that countries which shared a common border were natural enemies. However, any state on the other side of that enemy is a natural choice for an ally for they, too, are at risk from the same enemy. In other words, he believed in the principle of â€Å"the enemy of my enemy is my friend.† The idea is best envisioned by a series of concentric circles (not a normal configuration of states, admittedly, but easier to describe), which actually makes them look a bit like a mandala. (b) Potential enemies. â€Å"A neighboring prince possessed of the excellences of an enemy is the foe; one in calamity is vulnerable; one without support or with weak support is fit to be exterminated; in the reverse case, fit to be harassed or weakened. These are the different types of enemies[5].† (c) Alliances. A perfect ally is said to have six qualities,namely, constant, under control, quickly mobilising, hereditary, great and not given to double dealing. (d) The six measures of foreign policy. Kautilya however believes that there are spin-offs of these, thus providing six methods of foreign policy. These are making peace, waging war, staying quiet, preparing for war, seeking support, and the dual policy of making peace with one while waging war against another[6]. Ones circumstances will dictate which methods should be used. 15. Application of Mandala Theory in the Contemporary Indian geo-political Scenario. This Chapter will include the classification of friends, enemies, potential enemies, and likely allies on the basis of Mandala theory. 16. Implication of Chinas Rise in Indian Perspective. This chapter will include the following:- (a) Chinas comprehensive strategy. (b) Chinese Balance of power strategy in Asia. (c) Chinese economic Strategy. (d) Chinas encirclement policy. (e) Relationship with Indias neighbours. (f) Chinas perception of India. (g) Indias perception of China. (h) Implication of Chinas strategy on Indias security. 17. Application of Kautilyan Wisdom in Sino-Indian Relations. This chapter will include the following:- (a) Chinese critical vulnerabilities. (b) Indian options to counter Chinese threat. (c) Suggested Indian Strategy against China. â€Å"Miraculous results can be achieved by practising the methods of subversion†. Kautilya CHAPTER II BACKGROUND General 1. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya [7]or Vishnugupta, was an Indian statesman and philosopher who lived around 350 B.C.E. He is one of the most famous Indian political thinkers who participated in the social and political revolutions of his age. Though he lived a long time ago, certain principles from his theory are still relevant in todays context. His most famous work is Arthashastra, translated differently by various authors, but in its most acceptable meaning, the â€Å"science of political economy[8].† The book, written in Sanskrit, discusses theories and principles of governing a state. Arthashastra remains unique in all of Indian literature because of its unabashed advocacy of realpolitik. Indian scholars continued to study it for its clear-cut arguments and formal prose till the twelfth century. After that period it lost its significance. It has again become the focus of attention of thinkers who want to see a change in the Indian foreign policy[9]. 2. Kautilya was a Brahmin minister under Chandragupta Maurya[10], the first king of the great Mauryan Empire in India. The empire was the largest and most powerful political and military empire of ancient India. It was founded in 321 B.C.E. by Chandragupta Maurya[11], who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and begun expanding his power across central and western India. The Empire stretched to the North along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the West, it reached beyond modern Pakistan and included Baluchistan in Persia and significant portions of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. 3. Many call Kautilya the first political realist in the world.[12] His work differed from existing political theory in that it talked about ways of running the administration which were based more on self interest than on morality. The frank and brutal advice he offers the king in his treatise makes Machiavellis â€Å"The Prince† seem mild.[13] There are four different characteristics of a realist approach to international relations:[14] (a) The assumption that human nature is aggressive. (b) The belief that international relations will always be characterized by conflict. (c) The belief that the foremost goal of the king shall be the protection of the state and its people. (d) The belief that the state must be strong politically, economically, and militarily so as to minimize the possibility of an attack. 4. He thus talked about balance of power before this term was actually invented.[15] He said that the king should consider all his neighbors as his enemies and that any state on the opposite side of a neighbor is a potential ally. So, if countries were in a line, countries 1, 3, 5, 7 could be friends, as could 2, 4, and 6. But countries 1, 2, and 3 could never be friends. This status would change as soon as country 1 conquered country 2. From that very instant country 3 (a friend) would be the new enemy. This is called his ‘mandala theory.'[16] Arthashastra 5. It is necessary to bear in mind that the Arthashastra, â€Å"the science of wealth and warfare,† was just discovered and translated in the past century in Mysore by R. Shamasastry[17], and that until then, there was no knowledge of any such compilation, despite scant allusions made to an â€Å"Arthashastra,† and its alternative names â€Å"Nitisastra† and â€Å"Dandaniti,† in the Mahabharata[18].Thomas Trautmann dates the text to c.150 A.D. and, through rigorous statistical analysis, he concludes that the Arthashastra had several authors spanning a wide range of dates,[19] which adds to the puzzle of how historically obscure the text has been for over the past two millennia. Nevertheless, its secretive nature adds credence to its function as a handbook on efficient statecraft for kings and high-level ministers. 6. Artha has always been regarded as one of the four purusharthas,[20] yet its teachings have been relegated to animal fables and folklore. No such shastras seem to have been compiled for public knowledge, as was the case of the Dharmashastras and Kamashastras. In stark contrast to the latter, the manuscript discovered in 1902 by Shamasastry was compiled as a guidebook for kings and high-level officials, rather than the average individual. The result is a perspective advocating a top-down style of governance with little or no representation held by the general populace, and the continual maintenance of such a state with energetic leadership and extensive secret service. Though the king and upper echelons of society involuntarily accepted such authority because of religious ideals just as much as the general populace did, the Arthashastra suggests the existence of a small elite with a secular and realist outlook that actively worked to uphold this power scheme and determine the overal l course of the kingdom.[21] 7. It is for this reason that the Arthashastra advocates reordering the priorities of the purusharthas, by valuing materialism over religion and morality.[22] Similarly, R.P. Kangle notes that â€Å"these ideals are meant for individuals† and that the conduct of public life was not to be guided by these rules for individual morality[23]. Management of the state necessitated realism, not idealism. It required the prudence and precise calculation of measures undertaken alongside their short and long-term consequences, which formulated the theoretical beginnings of economics: â€Å"Wealth will slip away from that childish man who constantly consults the stars: the only [guiding] star of wealth is itself; what can the stars of the sky do? Man, without wealth, does not get it even after a hundred attempts. Just as elephants are needed to catch elephants, so does wealth capture more wealth[24].† Public welfare was contingent upon the strength of the state. The latter was achi eved by internal development or territorial expansion, both of which were realized through power[25]. 8. The Arthashastra regards both economics and foreign policy as zero-sum games: the state would need to prosper economically lest it be overtaken by wealthier imperialist neighbors or suffer from internal rebellion by discontented government officials and military leaders. Furthermore, internal development would naturally lead to population growth and would eventually necessitate expansion, which is why L.N. Rangarajan notes that â€Å"the aim of creating a well-run state is to provide the base for expansion. Continuing with this logic, Kautilya deals in Book 7 with all the theoretical possibilities of conducting an expansionist foreign policy.†[26] Hence, the prime motive of the state was the never-ending pursuit of artha. It is only after dedicating its energies to this end can the state or king then move on to fulfilling dharma and kama. 9. This Arthashastra is primarily a book of political realism where State is paramount and King shall carry out duties as advised in his book to preserve his state. For Kautilya, military strategy was an integral part of the science of polity[27] and he made no distinction between military techniques and statecraft. Kautilyas work is so deep rooted in realism that he goes to describe the gory and brutal means a King must adopt to be in power. This could have been one reason why Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya whom Kautilya advised renounced violence and war thus taking the path of Dharma or Morals. 10. I will also be making a few references to the other books of Arthashatra where topics of Management have been dealt with. The areas covered under Management include training, management education, leadership skills, selection of employees, consultation, crisis management, risk management, strategic management, corporate governance, information systems, intelligence network, competition, mergers and acquisitions, etc. among many others. Kautilya 11. There are a large of theories as to who Chanakya, or Kautilya or Vishnugupta , was. Kautilya was an enigmatic whose origin is shrouded in mystery. However, all sources of Indian tradition Brahmin, Buddhist and Jain agree that Kautilya destroyed the Nanda dynasty and installed Chandragupta Maurya on the throne of Magadha. 12. One theory about his origin is that Chanakya was a Kerala Brahmin who somehow reached the court of the Nanda king at Pataliputra[28]. The next theory is that Chanakya was a North Indian Brahmin born and educated in Taxila[29] and that he was physically ugly, had a disgusting complexion and his limbs were deformed. As per Jain tradition, his parents noticed that Chanakya was born with full set of teeth, a mark of future king. They had the teeth removed as either parent did not want him to become a King . He became a King maker instead. 13. At a very early age little Chanakya started studying Vedas. He later also studied politics and economics. As a student and later a professor, the University of Taxila became Chanakyas breeding ground of acquiring knowledge in the practical and theoretical aspects on all walks of life. However, with the Greek armies of Selucus threatening to invade India, and the various kingdoms in the subcontinent on the verge of war and aggression with each other, Chanakya left the university at Taxila, and proceeded in his own words to strengthen the country politically and economically and to save the country from the clutches of foreign invaders. 14. In Magadha, Chanakya was insulted by the King of Patliputra, Dhana Nanda and he vowed to destroy the Nanda dynasty. He came upon Chandragupta and together, Chanakya and Chandragupta set about attacking the Nanda kingdom until finally Chandragupta was installed as the king of Magadha[30]. According to written tradition, Chanakya was a fearless person, not afraid of death, disgrace or defeat. He was compassionate of the poor and evil to schemers. 15. Chanakya then retired from active life and reflected on all that he had learnt during the process of overthrowing Dhana Nanda. Since he found the earlier works on statecraft[31] unsatisfactory in many respects, he composed his own definitive work presenting his ideas concerning the ways in which a ruler should gain power and maintain his authority. For Chanakya, military strategy was an integral part of the science of polity and he made no distinction between military techniques and statecraft. Thus came into being the ‘Arthashastra. There is no doubt that this treatise is the work of a genius, who spoke of matters which have held relevance down the ages to contemporary times with striking infallibility. The military writings of Chanakya precede those of Machiavelli and Clausewitz by centuries but seldom has this fact been acknowledged much less credited outside India. â€Å"The king who understands the interdependence of the six methods of foreign policy, plays, as he pleases, with other rulers bound to him by the chains of his intellect†. Kautilya CHAPTER III KAUTILYAN FOREIGN POLICY Saptanga Concept Of State 16. Kautilyas theory of the state describes the seven constituent elements of any state[32] and is an exposition of the theory of the Circle of States (The mandala theory) as the basis for a foreign policy of expansion by conquest. Of the seven elements, six (the King, the ministers, the people, the fortified city, the Treasury and the army) are internal elements; only the ally is an element outside the borders. The structure and organization of the six internal elements of a well ordered state are fully developed and explained by Kautilya in books I to 5. The aim of creating a well-run state is to provide the base for expansion. Continuing this logic, Kautilya in Book 7 deaIs with all theoretical possibilities of conducting an expansionist foreign policy. Before a King actually sets out on an expedition of conquest he has to take steps to guard himself against the dangers which might weaken any of constituent elements of his own state. Kautilya uses the word calamity (vyasana) in th e precise sense of any event which weakens any constituent element of a state, thereby preventing it from being to its full potential in the conduct of foreign policy or war[33]. 17. This theory in one form or another (in part, as elements of national power), has survived to this very day as a mainstay of reflection and analysis of international politics. Kautilya enumerates the desirable qualities each of these elements should display and points out, too, that his list of elements is arranged in descending order of importance: each succeeding element is less important than the one before it, the king being most important of all. A ruler who possesses the elements of state and who wisely takes care of them will never be defeated, he says, and then devotes the whole of Book VIII[34] to a systematic analysis of the troubles and calamities which might befall each one of these elements (in other words, to their malfunctioning). 18. The king is the focal point of analysis; he strives to maintain and improve his position knowing that the determinants of status in international society are two: power and happiness: The possession of power and happiness in a greater degree makes a king superior to another; in a lesser degree, inferior; and in an equal degree, equal. Hence a king shall always endeavour to augment his power and elevate his happiness. 19. Neither power nor happiness is clearly or exhaustively defined or analysed. We know, however, that power is to be understood as strength and that it has three components[35]:- (a) Mantrashakti; Power of counsel, deliberation or decision-making, including capacity for intrigue. (b) Prabhushakti; The treasury and the army. (c) Utsahashakti; Resolve and determination. 20. Thus power refers essentially to activity and application of the elements of the state, just mentioned. Happiness on the other hand is that which can be attained by the use of power. It is to some degree a measure of success of foreign policy and the implementation of its objectives, but it also indicates those qualities such as righteousness and also internal stability and not power alone that enter into the determination of international status. 21. A kings position is not, however, unchanging; his status relative to another king is variable and needs continuous attention. A king prevents deterioration in his position and secures an improvement (a desire for which is a built-in feature of the system) in two ways: by attention to the elements of his power, and by external action. Kautilya enjoins the ruler to pursue power investment: a wise king adopts policies that add to the resources of his country and enable him to build forts, to construct buildings and commercial roads, to open new plantations and villages, to exploit mines and timber and elephant forests, and at the same time to harass similar works of the enemy[36]. Status is also obviously affected by successes in military and other fields, but the king is cautioned to rely on strengthening his own power before embarking upon foreign adventures. According to Kautilya, and here is one of the more interesting portions of his analysis, the kings status read national pow er determines his foreign policy. That policy differs according to whether it is directed toward kings who are superior, inferior or equal to him. The bulk of the international portions of the Arthashastra are a discussion of the policies that may be appropriately pursued by superior or inferior kings[37]. Postulates Of Foreign Policy 22. As a political realist, Kautilya assumed that every nation acts to maximize power and self-interest, and therefore moral principles or obligations have little or no force in actions among nations[38]. While it is good to have an ally, the alliance will last only as long as it is in that allys as well as ones own self-interest, because an ally looks to the securing of his own interests in the event of simultaneity of calamities and in the event of the growth of the enemys power[39]. Whether one goes to war or remains at peace depends entirely upon the self-interest of, or advantage to, ones kingdom: War and peace are considered solely from the point of view of profit. One keeps an ally not because of good will or moral obligation, but because one is strong and can advance ones own self-interest as well as the self-interest of the ally, for when one has an army, ones ally remains friendly, or (even) the enemy becomes friendly.[40] Because nations always act in their political, econ omic, and military self-interest, even times of peace have the potential to turn abruptly into times of war, allies into enemies, and even enemies into allies. Kautilya probably assumed that peaceful empires cannot last forever, and that conflict among smaller states is more common in history. 23. For Kautilya, this principle of foreign policy that nations act in their political, economic, and military self-interest was a timeless truth of his science of politics, or arthasastra. He did not believe that nations never act in an altruistic manner indeed, Kautilya advocated humanitarian acts that also coincided with ones self-interest but he did believe that one must assume, if entrusted with political or military power that ones neighbours will eventually act in their own interests. Put another way, one would be betraying ones own people if one did not assume a worst-case scenario. A nation forced to rely on the kindness of neighbouring states is weak and, unless it can change rapidly, doomed to destruction. 24. Arthashastra is concerned with the security and foreign policy needs of a small state, in an environment with numerous other small states. The scope for enlargement of this small state was limited to the Indian subcontinent. The area extending from the Himalayas in the north to the sea in the south and a thousand yojanas[41] wide from East to West is the area of operation of the King-Emperor'[42]. Territories beyond the subcontinent are not included, probably for the reason that the conqueror is expected to establish in the conquered territories a social order based on the Aryas dharma, varna and ashrama system. Kautilya perhaps considered the establishment of such a social order outside the limits of India impractical or even undesirable[43]. 25. The guiding principles which govern the Kautilyan theory of foreign policy are[44]:- (a) A king shall develop his state, i.e., augment its resources and power in order to enable him to embark on a campaign of conquest; (b) The enemy shall be eliminated; (c) Those who help are friends; (d) A prudent course shall always be adopted; (e) Peace is to be preferred to war; and (f) A kings behaviour, in victory and in defeat, must be just. 26. The first verse of {6.2}, ‘Sama vyayamau yogakshemayoryonih ‘The welfare of a state [ensuring the security of the state within its existing boundaries and acquiring new territory to enlarge it] depends on adopting a policy of non-intervention or overt action establish the basis for all foreign policy. 27. This non-intervention, a method designed to build up confidence between kings, is to be understood in a specialized sense. It is not a policy of doing nothing but the deliberate choice of a policy of keeping away from foreign entanglements, in order to enjoy the fruits of past acquisitions by consolidating them. 28. Vyayama, (industry or activity) implies an active foreign policy, Yoga, the objective of enlargement of ones power and influence, and, through these, ones territory. These are the two stages of policy. Both depend on the state making progress, either materially in terms of its treasury and army or diplomatically in terms of its relations with other states. 29. The problem of defence of a state is intimately bound up with the question of its foreign relations. It is from hostile states that the state needs to be defended. Foreign relations are mainly discussed from the stand point of the â€Å"Vijigisu†[45]. In other words, it seeks to show how a state, desirous of extending its influence and expanding its territory, should conduct its relations with foreign states. A states position is determined by its relative progress or relative decline vis-a-vis other states in the neighbourhood. 30. The most important of a kings neighbours is the ‘enemy. Among the states surrounding a kingdom, there is always one who is the natural enemy. Presumably, this is the one neighbour who has designs on the king and, in the absence of any action, will be out to attack the king. The other neighbours may be hostile (aribhavi), friendly (mitrabhavi) or vassal (bhrityabhavi). There may also be a small buffer state between the king and the enemy (antardih). However, the main target of the conqueror is always the designated natural enemy; ‘one cannot make peace with an enemy'[46]. The reason for many aspects of the analysis of foreign policy being couched in terms of the conqueror out manoeuvring the enemy, is that the enemy is also the target of the diplomacy of the conqueror. When the conditions are ripe, a military campaign will be undertaken against him. 31. Allies are important; in fact, allies are described as a ‘constituent element of a state, the only external constituent. An alliance is based on giving help. â€Å"A friend is ever a well-wisher†[47]. Kautilya gives us a comprehensive analysis of the type of kings with whom an alliance is desirable and the types of allies based on their character and motivation. 32. Since prudence should always govern choice of policy, Kautilya is against both spineless submission and foolhardy valour[48]. Therefore, peace should always be preferred to war: ‘When the degree of progress is the same in pursu Mary Shelleys Frankenstein: Romanticism Analysis Mary Shelleys Frankenstein: Romanticism Analysis Mary Shelleys Frankenstein uses many elements of both Gothic literature and Romantic literature. Being written in 1818 the novel was placed well in the romantic era. Frankenstein uses very descriptive language to create beautiful scenery but also dark suspenseful settings. The novel works very well to balance out the true gothic nature of the novel with the romantic period in which it is set in. Frankenstein has a very dark underlying theme of death and revenge. There is also an incredible amount of emotion not only in the love Victor feels but also in the hatred the monster lets fester. There are many things that make Frankenstein a romantic novel, but the true underlying theme and the overpowering dark imagery is what makes Frankenstein a gothic novel. Frankenstein uses dark scenery to build suspense and foreshadow the events to come. When Victor is about to breathe life into the monster he describes how it was on a dreary night of November (Shelley, 34). This is a subtle sign that things are not about to go as planned. The birth of the monster will be a turning point in Victors life and one he will come to regret. Further in the same chapter the dark scenery tells the reader of Victors mistake. Victor states that he felt impelled to hurry on, although drenched from the rain which poured from a black and comfortless sky. (Shelley, 36). The sky is a representation of Victors wrong doing. He should not have created life so easily and carelessly. Many gothic novels will have a setting like a castle to show that it is a gothic novel, however, Frankenstein is different. The novel requires the main characters to move around a lot and travel very far distances. In order to make up for this Mary Shelley uses an amazing amount of descriptiv e scenery, like the examples from chapter five, to show that it really is a gothic and not a romantic. Another gothic element that the novel has is the use of the supernatural. The monster in which Victor creates is made out of body parts which Victor had to collect and piece together. This makes the reader question whether or not they agree with Victors taboo practices. It is very dark to think about Victor digging up bodies to steal parts of them to use in a monster just so he can play God. It seems all too nonchalant in the novel but in reality, that would be horrific. Shelleys novel is not only a gothic but also a critique and an exploration of the romantic genre. All through the novel it is clear to see that Victor Frankenstein is a true romantic. He is overflowing with emotion and in the end is consumed by it. Victor is always looking to the impossible he wants to create life in his own image. The romantics were always looking for a bigger, brighter future, but Victor wanted to create it. Life and death appeared to me ideal bounds, which I should first break through and pour a torrent of life into our dark world. A new species would bless me as its creator and sourceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Shelley, 32). Victor is looking to become a God, he wants to create a new species that looks up to him as the almighty. This may be a critique on the romantics point of view. It is okay to look forward to a brighter future but what lengths would a man go to in order to create or mould that future. Through the novel, Victors whole life is torn apart by the monster whi ch he created. In creating the future, he destroyed his own. All this horror and death is set in a very hopeful and beautiful setting. The way that Shelley describes the scenery is very romantic, but with the theme of death and revenge the setting feels more like a satire. Some people believe that Percy Shelley, a romantic writer and Mary Shelleys husband, had a large amount of influence on the novel. Others believe that he even wrote the book in her name. This could explain the romantic feel of the novel. However, if it was Mary Shelley who wrote it herself then it is a clear and obvious critique of the romantic era and the novel goes a lot deeper than one might think at first glance. Frankenstein was written in 1818 and it shows in the scenery and views on science. The way that Victor creates the monster is a reference to Giovanni Aldini. Aldini used electricity to make a slaughtered ox head spasm and appear to move like it was alive. Victor creates the monster in such a way but the monster actually comes alive rather than twitching on a table. With an anxiety that almost amounted to agony, I collected the instruments of life around me, that I might infuse a spark of being into the lifeless thing that lay at my feet. (Shelley, 34). Shelley wanted to create the same shock and horror that Aldini did when he made the ox head move in front of an audience. This shows just how misunderstood science was by the general public. Since many principles of science were misunderstood Shelley equated science to magic and it was believable. The novel also reveals how society was very unaccepting and cold. Victor is scared to reveal his creation for fear that he would be called a monster for bringing such a horrific being to life. I avoided explanation and maintained a continual silence concerning the wretch I had created. I had a persuasion that I should be supposed mad, and this in itself would forever have chained my tongue. (Shelley, 136). Victor cannot get the monster out of his head, he feels it must be kept a secret and a burden only he can bear. However, Victor is so caught up in keeping it a secret that everything he says sounds crazy. His own father thinks he is mad and Victor knows this. He is afraid that he will never be thought a credible scientist again if the world finds his creation. The way that Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein is very interesting and takes a few reads and some deeper research to understand. Upon first glance it appears a regular gothic about a monster and his creator, but after a few more reads one can see the deeper romantic influence and the critique of the romantic view. The novel is a perfect gothic which relates itself to the society it was written for and the horror it looks to instil. The dark theme and questionable actions of the main character truly bring out the gothic nature in this novel. The way Victor tries to create the future he looks for is horrific and ultimately a failure. This is used to show that the romantics are dreamers and reality will create its own future. One man cannot create life and toy with the future so easily. Destiny cannot be escaped and dreaming of a better future is futile. The novel creates a feeling of despair in the reader. One can only hope for a better future and trying to create one like Victor will on ly end in catastrophe. This underlying, deeper meaning of the novel is what makes Frankenstein a true gothic novel. Works Cited Shelley, Mary Frankenstein. New York: Dover, 1994. Smith, Nicole. Elements of Romanticism in Frankenstein by Mary Shelley. Article Myriad.   Dec 6, 2011. http://www.articlemyriad.com/elements-romanticism-frankenstein/ Gothic Literature. The Gothic Experience. Brooklyn College. October 24, 2002. http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/gothic/gothic.html

Overview of Applications to Flavonoids to Cancer

Overview of Applications to Flavonoids to Cancer Flavonoids and its effect on the proliferation of the cells: Published date suggested that flavonoids have capability to inhibit phosphate protein kinases on their specific sites. Flavonoids interact with Akt/PKB (protein-kinase B), tyrosine kinase P1KC (protein-1 kinase C), PI3-kinase (phosphoinositide 3-kinase), and MAP (mitogen-activated protein) kinase signaling pathways. Flavonoids have been reported to activate and inhibit the effects on these signaling pathways by modulating of their gene expressions (Williams et al., 2004). Flavonoids inhibitory mechanism has been proved by altering their receptor phosphorylations or blocking growth factor receptor binding. Flavonoids also inhibit Fyn and Lck protein kinases, involved in T cell signaling transport (Calic et al., 2005). PI3K catalyze productions of PIP1 and PIP2. PIP3 may activate the PDK1 which stimulates the Akt/PKB. Of these effects PDK1 is essential for regulator of cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, migration and apoptosis. Bad, Bcl-2, and caspases proteins are responsible for apoptosis, these can be inhbitied by Akt pathway. Several data have been suggested that flavonoids directly inhibit the PI3K pathway by their interacting their ATP binding sites. MAPK pathway ((ERK2, JNK1 and p38) are responsible for releasing of many survival genes (c-Fos, c-Jun) and those genes which are involved in the antioxidant activity (detoxification enzymes, glutathione S-transferase, glutathione-reductase) have also been activated by low level of quercetin. Anti-cancerous properties of the flavonoids: Flavonoids also have anticancer activities by blocking their cellular mechanism. Flavonoids targets the cell cycle regulator proteins (cycline-dependent kinases and their inhibitors, protein p53 and Rb, E2Fs, ATM/ATR and surviving transition-controlling points G1/S and G2/M) (Sing et al., 2006). Flavopiridol properly inhibits the CDK1-and CDK2 cell regulating pathways (Vermeulen et al., 2003). Cell proliferation and cell viability ratio of the prostate cancer decreased with treatment of quercetin. Quercetin induced apoptosis with down-regulating mechanism of Hsp90 expression of proteins, resulting in the death of cancer cells by inhibiting the cellular growth. (Aalinkeel et al., 2008). Inhibiting cellular growth and DNA synthesis and blockage of cell cycle at S-phase in squamta cells have been reported with quercetin (Haghiac et al., 2005). Querecetin also prevents growth of nasopharyngeal cancer cells via arrest of cell cycle at G1/S phase (Ong et al., 2004). ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase) pathway stimulates the lung cancer which is derived from the A549 cell proliferation have been reported combine inhibitory effects of querecetin and kaempferol (Hung et al., 2007). Quercetin stimulates the protein expressions of p21 and p22 which inhibited the cell cycle in H epG2 cells (Mu C et al., 2007). Quercetin at the concentration of (248uM) down-regulates the mutantp53 expressions which is almost untraceable in the cell lines of the breast cancer. Negative control was too lower as compare to normal gene p53. Quercetin at the dose of 70 uM, having inhibiting activity on cell division, and trysine kinase activity, is an enzyme placed on the cell membrane and is involved in growth factors and signaling transduction in nucleus (Lamson et al., 2000). Scientific data have been reported that flavonoids especially the quercetin having oral anticancer properties. Quercetin inhibits the cellular growth and DNA synthesis depending the dose and timing of the administration. Quercetin induced apoptosis with treatment of caspase-3 proteins after 72 hours, and cell necrosis after 24-48 hours in SCC-9 cells. Flow cytometer studies confirmed cell cycle blockage at S-phase with the treatment of quercetin (Haghiac et al., 2005). Quercetin induced cell proliferation of B16-BL6 after 72 hours and also caused apoptosis in B16-BL6 cells and reduced the expressions of Bcl-2 and anti-apoptotic proteins (Zhang et al., 2000). Anti-apoptotic properties of the flavonoids: Flavonoids have been reported to induce apoptosis process by activating and modulating cellular signaling pathways resulting in death of pre-cancerous and maligne cells, which terminates cancer development or progression. Human prostate cancer cell line LNCaP, treated with different concentrations of quercetin shown to inhibited cell death after 24 hours. Inhibition of Akt survival signals have been activated in the treated cells. Rapid decrease in Ser 136 phosphorylation in Bad that is a Akt target have been reported with treatment of LNCaP and 100 uM of quercetin. Quercetin have been shown to reduce the Bcl-XL, Bx ratio and enhances translocation and multimeriation of Bax in the mitochondrial membrane; cytochrome-c released by translocation, and the caspase 3, 5, 9 proteins and PARB (poli(ADP-ribose)polymerase). Remarkably, quercetin does not induce cellular viability or apoptosis at same concentrations in normal prostatic epithelial cells (Zhanget al., 2000). Exposure of cells for longer time on quercetin induced apoptosis intervened by reduction of thymidylate synthase (Ong et al., 2004). Quercetin induced apoptosis in CNE2 and HK1 cells after 24 hours of treatment and treatment was continued when necrosis was observed. HeLa cells have been exposed on non-toxic flavonoid concentrations which slightly susceptible to TRAIL induced cell death. TRAIL mediated cytotoxicity in HeLa cells was increased by apigenin and ginstein but no effect have been documented with kaempfeol and quercetin (Leeet al., 2008). Luteoline induced cell cytotoxicity by suppressing PI3K/Akt (phosphattidylinositol 3-kinase), NF-kB (nuclear factor kappa B) and XIAP (X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein) and activates of apoptotic pathways, such as p53 protein (Lin et al., 2008 and Lopez-Lazaro., 2009). At high doses majority of the flavonoids suppressors AP-1 activity (activator protein 1) by MAPK (mitogen – activated protein kinase) pathway (Gopalakrishnan et al., 2006). Activation of cellular signaling pathways in cancer and flavonoids: Figures-9. Sources of inflammatory mediators and their origin Figure-7. Some diseases and cancers associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) Conclusion: Oxidative stress brings the changes into the cells resulting in gene mutation which leads to the carcinogenesis. It brings direct or indirect intra and inter-cellular and intercellular transduction and transcription changes by antioxidants. The role of oxidative stress in carcinogenesis and tumor bearing conditions is complex and various mechanisms and substances are involved. Clinical evidence suggests that oxidative stress and inflammation linked to free radicles over generation may be the key factor in development of chronic diseases, insulin resistance, diabetes, cardiovascular and other diseases. Excessive nutrition, stress in combination with sedentary lifestyle, can independently result in overburden of glucose and fatty acid accumulation with musle, adipose tissue and pancreatic cells. All these factors lead to chronic inflammation resulting in chronic diseases. Published data suggested that the key role of polyphenolic compounds such as flavonoids as therapeutics agents in the inflammatory diseases including obesity, T2DM, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases cancer and aging. Flavonoids are the key modulators of inflammatory molecules. Flavonoids inhibits the AMPK one of the major pathway of inflammation and cancer. Activation of AMPK by flavonoids causes to increase the cancer cell apoptosis, inhibit cell proliferation and some studies suggested that it a neoplastic agent Furthermore, inflammation stimulates various inflammatory mediators, chemokine’s, cytokines, signaling transductions and transcriptional factors; overproduction for long periods may lead to chronic inflammation which in turn to chronic diseases such as neurological diseases and cancer. Better clarification of these mechanisms will be beneficial to the development of efficacious prevention and therapies of inflammation associated cancers. Moreover, effects of flavonoids at molecular mechanism and study also should be carried out on modulatory action; effects on transcription levels of the flavonoids should be studied. Fig-4. Anti-inflammatory activities of the flavonoids SOD- Superoxide dismutase 2- CAT- Catalase 3- GPx- Glutathione peroxidase 4- GR- Glutathione reductase 5- GST- Glutathione S-transferase. 6- ÃŽ ³GCS- ÃŽ ³-glutamylcysteine synthetase 7- NADPH:NQO1- quinone oxidoreductase-1. 8- HSP70- heat shock proteins. 9- MPO- myeloperoxidase 10- iNOS- inducible nitric oxidase synthase. 11- OH Hydroxyl radical. 12- O2 -superoxide radical. 12- MDA- Malondialdehyde 13- IL-2 interlukins-2 14- FMLP- Formyl-Methionyl-Leucyl-Phenylalanine. 15- TNF-ÃŽ ±- Tumor necrosis factor ÃŽ ±. 16- LTB4- Leukotriene B4. 17- LTC4- Leukotriene C4. 18- TXB2- Thomboxane B2 19. PGE2- Prostaglandins e2. 20- NF-ÃŽ ºB- Nuclear Factor Kappa Beta 21- ICAM-1- Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 22- VCAM-1- vascular cell adhesion molecule-1